Early Medieval

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This is not a detailed look at the post-Roman period, but rather a jumping-off page down many historical "rabbit holes". Characters mentioned have often accreted many myths.

Introduction

The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century. The period marked the start of the "Middle Ages" of European history, following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, and preceding the High Middle Ages (c. 11th to 14th centuries). The alternative term "Late Antiquity", for the early part of the period, emphasizes elements of continuity with the Roman Empire, while "Early Middle Ages" is used to emphasize developments characteristic of the earlier medieval period.

The period saw a continuation of trends evident since late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, a small rise in average temperatures in the North Atlantic region and increased migration. In the 19th century the early Middle Ages were often labelled the Dark Ages, a characterization based on the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time.

Many of the listed trends reversed later in the period. In 800, the title of Emperor was revived in Western Europe with Charlemagne, whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure and history. Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system, which adopted such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plough. Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe, although the Viking expansion greatly affected Northern Europe.

One "local" source for this period is the "Annals of ye Abbey of Chester to ye year 1297". As the Abbey was founded in 1093 the earlier events would have been transcribed from other sources. The first mention of Chester in the Annals is the founding of St Johns in 689. The next is the translation of Werburgh's remains to Chester in 875. The date of the foundation of the monastery at Chester is given as 924, and the entry for 1057 states that:

  • "Leofric, earl of Chester, in the time of S. Edward, king and confessor, repaired, and conferred privileges on the collegiate church of S. John the Baptist, and the church of S. Werburg situate within the city [of Chester] as William of Malmesbury relates in his Chronicle, De Gestis Anglorum, Book 2."

The next entry in the Annals with a specific reference to Chester mentions the founding of the Abbey in 1093. By convention, the Early Medieval period lasted from the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, until most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms came under the overlordship of Ecgbert of Wessex in 829. In reality, the period would have started and finished at different dates in different places and for Chester there are arguments that this can be seen as a sub-Roman "Welsh" period followed by a Mercian/Saxon/Viking period which lasted until the fall of the city to the Normans in 1070.

Early Medieval Chester

Many guidebooks to Chester make much of the Roman History, sometimes to the neglect of the Early Medieval period. Although in the early 8th century Bede called Chester a city (civitas) and clearly knew of it as a Roman place, he said nothing about post-Roman activity there except for the Battle of Chester. The last specific reference to Legio XX, the legion most closely associated with Chester, is on coins struck by the usurper Carausius, who died in 294. Constantine "the Great" would later steal Carausius' best lines. The Romans would stay in Britain for the next hundred years, but during this entire time there is no actual historical mention of Legio XX at Chester.

Signage at the Amphitheatre suggests that Gildas (who could not have written left handed as shown) worked at Bangor on Dee - it is almost certainly wrong.

Nevertheless, despite the silence of the documentary sources, the site's enduring importance suggests that some form of occupation may have continued after the Roman army left. The legionary fortress appears to have acquired an increasingly significant civilian role in the last century of its existence, and may have remained the focus of some kind of "local" territorial unit. Welsh tradition possibly provides some pointers to late Roman activity in the Chester/North Wales area. In 383, the usurper Magnus Maximus withdrew troops from northern and western Britain, possibly at that stage leaving local "warlords" in charge. However, he does not (as originally believed) seem to have removed the entire Roman army. As explained in the article on Elen of the Hosts Maximus' story was converted into the confused Welsh legend of Macsen Wledig and even gets a mention in the Chester Mystery Plays. Maximus' ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by Theodosius I at the Battle of the Save in 388. He was then executed by Theodosius. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britain, but the end of the Roman presence in Wales, the Marches and possibly Chester may well be more complex than that.

The Sub-Roman Period

The page on the Mold Cope discusses the possible intervention of Germanus of Auxerre in the North Wales region about 429. As with much of the history of the immediate post-Roman period there is little "trench in the ground" archaeology to be had, and sources include myths, legends and folklore, some of which may contain an element of "truth", but much of which may have been generated later, often for political/social reasons which are themselves interesting.

Gildas, a 6th century monk, is mentioned on signage at the Amphitheatre, but this gives a false impression of his association with Chester. His "Ruin of Britain" is one of the few sources from the period, but in fact, Gildas does not mention Chester directly in his writings. He mentions a "City of the Legions" but this could be Caerleon. The "Bangor" mentioned on the signage is not Bangor on Dee but Bangor Tewdws (Meaning "college" or "chief university" of Theodosius) a Celtic monastery and college in what is now Llantwit Major, Glamorgan. Gildas distorts history somewhat for his polemic. For example, he appears to be the source of the myth that Magnus Maximus drained Britain of troops. He makes no mention of Constantine III as this does not suit his narrative. Constantine III rose to power from within the field army of Roman Britain and was acclaimed emperor in early 407 (thirty years after Magnus Maximus). He promptly moved to Gaul, supposedly taking all of the mobile troops from Britain, with their commander Gerontius, to confront bands of Germanic invaders who had crossed the Rhine the previous winter.

Very little if anything is known about specific events in Chester during the 6th Century. The post-Roman kingdom of Powys initially extended much further east and may have included the Roman cities of Deva (Chester) and Viroconium (Wroxeter) and so covering the lands of the Ordovices and Cornovii: modern day east mid Wales, Chester and Shropshire - the fertile valleys of the Dee, Severn and Trent. Viroconium may well have been the capital of Powys and later of the (possible) sub-kingdom of Pengwern. The Plague of Justinian seems to have reached the region around 546 (see: Pandemic). The monastery at Bangor-on-Dee appears to have been established around 560. The Gregorian Mission saw Augustine of Canterbury land in Britain in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. The Annales Cambriae gives the date of 601 for the synod of "Urbs Legions" and Bede gives a similar date for a synod at which Archbishop Augustine met a group of Brittonic bishops at a date in 603 or 604 (Ecclesiastical History, Book II Ch. 2). Bede doesn't specify the location of the meeting, but says that it was attended by seven bishops and many very learned men mainly from Bangor-is-Coed. Bangor-is-Coed is about 18 miles from Chester, so this would be consistent with the synod being held in Chester. The two year difference in year number between the AC and EH is a consistent difference for many dates.

Coin finds from the Chester mint indicate the extent of Irish Sea trade.

By the time of the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith's victory over the British in 616 at the Battle of Chester, Chester was in territory associated with the British kingdom of Powys and was perhaps the seat of a branch of the royal dynasty of the Cadelling, whose representatives were prominent in the battle. Bede mentions the battle as an illustration of the shortcomings of the "Celtic" church. Who controlled Chester in the following period (the rule of Edwin of Northumbria) is unclear and leads into another fog of myth. All that can safely be said is that, despite the Northumbrian victory, Chester and its environs soon passed under Mercian (Saxon) domination, and that a 12th-century tradition that one of the city's two early minsters, St Johns, was founded by the Mercian king Æthelred (674–704) in the late 7th century may therefore have something to commend it. The church's extramural site, its close association with the Anglo-Saxon bishops of Lichfield, and the burial rights which it shared with the other early minster, St. Werburgh's (which became the present day Cathedral), all tend to confirm its antiquity.

Werburgh, the saint most closely associated with Chester was born about 650 at Stone, now in Staffordshire. Her father was to become King Wulfhere of Mercia (himself the Christian son of the pagan King Penda of Mercia) and his wife St Ermenilda (herself daughter of the King of Kent). Whether Mercia included Chester at this time is unclear.

The Saxon Period

The location of Offa's Dyke appears to place Chester firmly in Saxon teritory at the time that it was constructed. Offa reigned from 757 until his death in 796. However the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the sculptures at the Town Hall have Ecgbert taking Chester from the Welsh in around 830. Werburgh, in the form of her remains, is traditionally (by Bradshaw) said to have arrived in Chester in 875 - when the city seems to have been firmly in Saxon hands. Plegmund, described as a Mercian, is reputed to have been "a hermit" near Chester before he became Alfred's archbishop in 890 and could possibly have been at Chester when Werburgh's remains were translated there.

In 893 Vikings raided Chester, then "a deserted city in Wirral". Although that description has led to the assumption that the site was waste from the 7th to the early 10th century, it need not be so interpreted. The raid, which culminated in the Danes' occupying the city and being besieged there for two days while the English ravaged the surrounding districts, may well have been prompted by an awareness of the city's growing economic and strategic importance, lying as it did near a direct route between the already closely linked Scandinavian kingdoms of Dublin and York (see: Chester and Ireland). Chester was refortified about 907 by Æthelflæd the daughter of Alfred the Great. The extent of the repair to the Roman walls in her time is not completely understood. Æthelflæd would not have access to the vast resources needed for quarrying stone and a complete rebuild, but she does seem to have extended the fortifications down towards the river. The dedications of the two churches in the area, St Bridget and St Olave, were also appropriate for a Hiberno-Norse community. St. Olave's cannot have come into being before the mid 11th century, since the dedicatee, the Norwegian king Olaf II Haraldsson, was killed only in 1030; St. Bridget's, however, could well be earlier. The dedication was especially likely to have been favoured by immigrants from Ireland and was used also at West Kirby, in the Scandinavian settlement on Wirral. Moreover, since the medieval parish of St. Bridget's at Chester was in at least two portions, separated by parts of other parishes, it was perhaps once larger and had been eroded by later foundations. The church was probably the first to serve the Hiberno-Norse in Chester and dated from the period of their settlement in the city.

Archaeology has revealed a considerable Scandinavian and/or Hiberno-Norse influence active in Chester around the start of the 10th century. Artifacts include clothing-pins and brooches and some remains of buildings show "Viking" (bow-sided) features. This might be taken as evidence for extensive trade with Ireland. Coins from the Chester mint have been found at many locations around the Irish Sea in contexts that suggest distribution through trade rather than raiding. Chester almost certainly contained a sizeable Hiberno-Norse community involved in the Irish trade, located south of the legionary fortress in the quarter next to the early harbour where the clearest evidence for pre-Conquest settlement has been found.

Æthelflæd's brother, Edward the Elder, became king after Alfred and is said to have died at Farndon in 924. This may indicate the presence of some sort of Royal estate there. Edward's sucessor Æthelstan (conveniently present at his father's death), would win the Battle of Brunanburh possibly just north of Chester? in 937. Chester would remain important and Edgar the Pacific, (c.Aug 7, 943 – July 8, 975) would make his often-mentioned river trip there in 973. Local tradition holds that he started from Edgar's Field.

In 1013, just over a half-century before the Norman Conquest, England was successfully invaded and shortly thereafter conquered for the first time since the coming of the Anglo-Saxons some 500 years before. The history is normally viewed from the perspective of Wessex, however it is also possible to take a perspective from the Mercian position, especially that of the House of Leofric which had close connections with Chester. Leofric is almost unknown to the general reader although many have heard of his wife, Godiva, famous for riding through Coventry in a state of undress. Leofric's son Ælfgar and the next generation in turn played a major part in the historic events either side of 1066. Events in Wales and across the Welsh/Mercian border are also of some interest especially as regards Chester.

The conflict between the House of Leofric and the House of Godwin played a major part in the events leading up to 1066. Chester was to be the last Anglo-Saxon city to be taken by the Normans (see: Harold's family) and local legend holds that Harold Godwinson was the initial hermit who inhabited the Hermitage. The latter is almost certainly a romantic tale, as is that of his ghost. However, if you ever encounter a ghostly figure near St Johns, do try the Anglo-Saxon phrase: "ferþu hal, god cyning" ("go well, good king") - Harold might appreciate that (and avoid speaking French).

The End of the Early Medieval in Chester

The battle at Hastings/Senlac Ridge in October 1066 did not secure French-Norman control of England. The Harrying of the North was a series of military campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate Northern England, where the presence of the last Wessex claimant, Edgar Ætheling, had encouraged Anglo-Saxon Northumbrian, Anglo-Scandinavian and Danish rebellions. William paid the Danes to go home, but the remaining rebels refused to meet him in battle, and he decided to starve them out by laying waste to the Northern shires using scorched earth tactics. A considerable part of Cheshire was devastated during the winter of 1069-70, the uprising was crushed, and the possibility of future unrest was eliminated by the almost complete dispossession of the native landholders (most notably earl Edwin of Mercia) and the redistribution of their properties.

The devastation wrought at this time is reflected in the laconic entries of Domesday Book, compiled 15 years later. For many Cheshire places the word "wasta" is used, with the sense of "abandoned or useless land". There are difficulties in interpreting the term, because land can be abandoned for a variety of reasons, but most of the Cheshire places so described seem to be those which had been destroyed in 1069 and had not yet recovered. The tax valuations for 1066 and 1086, recorded in Domesday, reinforce this impression: time and again the 1086 figure is only a fraction of that for 20 years earlier, reflecting a drastic decline in value and productivity.

The distribution of the manors which were "waste" suggests that the Norman forces entered Cheshire over Woodhead, and then passed down Longdendale towards Stockport and Macclesfield. Although "waste" manors are found in all parts of the county, the concentration of devastation around Macclesfield is particularly notable, and this district clearly suffered most severely from William’s retribution. In eastern Cheshire the land, the settle­ments and maybe the fabric of society were in a ruined state for decades after 1070.

At Chester, a vital strategic objective, there is evidence of destruction on a large scale. The city was perhaps besieged, although the chronicles are silent on that point, and the term "thoroughly devastated" is used in Domesday Book. The survey states that whereas before 1066 there were 48 houses which paid tax (implying a population of at least 2,400), by 1107 there were 25 fewer houses, the scale of the loss, making it certain that major catastrophe had taken place. Furthermore, by 1086 the numbers had not grown again, which strongly implies a continuing economic crisis.

One immediate result of the rising was a total reorganisation of Cheshire administration. The devolving of power to a loyal supporter of the crown was to be a well-used French-Norman device for securing and administering difficult frontier areas, and with this in mind William in 1071 conferred the title of Earl of Chester on one of his chief supporters, Hugh of Avranches.

Some historical "Rabbit Holes"

Exploring Early Medieval Chester

Although the history of Early Medieval Chester is well attested in the literature there is comparatively little to see on the ground. However a little exploration is still possible.

The City Walls from St Martins Gate to the Newgate have their origins in this period, but have been much rebuilt since and there is little difference as compared with the rest of the walls, which are based on those of Roman Chester. The Hermitage is said to be where Harold lived on after surviving Hastings, but the present building dates from later. No part of the structure of St Johns predates the Normans, but there is a collection of Anglo-Saxon crosses there which are labelled as being from the period 750-900. Some of the stained glass and signage in St Johns refers to events in the Early Medieval period: the Battle of Chester (fought at Heronbridge), its foundation by Æthelred, king of Mercia (674–704) and Edgar the Pacific sailing on the Dee. There is possibly some robbed-out stone from the Amphitheatre used at St Johns, possibly with some Viking runes. The Cathedral is a Norman rebuild of the earlier Saxon church, although the later Medieval shrine of St Werburgh features many characters from Mercian/Kentish history. Plegmund and Alfred the Great also turn up in stained glass at the Cathedral (as does Werburgh), and Plegmund has "his" church at nearby Plemstal, with a depiction of him in modern stained glass (together with the "Alfred Jewel"), and of course Plegmund's well. There may be some re-used Anglo-Saxon stonework in the cloister (south side) at the Cathedral. St Bridget is gone, and St Olave is another rebuild (with a symbolic axe in stained glass), as is St Peter. Farndon has a largely rebuilt St Chad, with little surviving of the Early Medieval. Edgar's Field has some modern sculpture relating to Edgar and there is a Victorian depiction of his river trip in the Bull and Stirrup on Northgate Street. The supposed site of the Battle of Brunanburh is just to the north of Chester, but there is nothing to see, except Æthelflæd in stained glass at St Barnabas, Bromborough, and fragments of a cross. There is no statue to Æthelflæd in the Town Hall square, but the Town Hall's porch features Ecgbert in bas-relief collecting crowns.

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Chester in Other Historical Periods

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