Black Sunday
The Salvation Army used to refer to Boughton as a "Stronghold of Satan" and in the early 1880's it was their habit to march from there on Sundays, after gathering at St Giles Cemetery. They ended their march at The Pavilion a former roller-skating rink near Chester Station. On the 26th March 1882, this led to a serious riot and Chester was shaken by what came to be known as "Black Sunday", during which the local Salvation Army marched through the Irish Catholic district around Steven Street, where it was attacked by a mob, of a type often said to be known as the Skeleton Army. The original Skeleton Army was a diffuse group often said to originally be from Weston-super-Mare (others have it originate in Exeter), active particularly in Southern England, that opposed and disrupted The Salvation Army's marches against alcohol in the late 19th century and became known for an attack in Bethnal Green in London. Clashes between the two groups led to the deaths of several Salvationists and injuries to many others. While there were serious injuries in Chester there were apparently no deaths.
Activity in the South
In 1865 former Methodist William Booth and his wife Catherine Mumford established an evangelical and philanthropic organisation to preach salvation from sins and propagate purity of life among the poor and destitute people of London's East End. The Salvation Army sought to help the poor, destitute and hungry by meeting both their “spiritual and physical needs”. They were vehemently opposed to alcohol, smoking and gambling – which often caused resentment and hostility within the very communities that they were trying to save. The Booths had received invitations to preach in London, and William began preaching outside the public house in Whitechapel Road, Bethnal Green, called The Blind Beggar, trying to save the souls of people that were not particularly welcomed by the established churches.
In late 1865, the Booths founded the Christian Revival Association, an independent religious association, which was soon renamed the East London Christian Mission. It was organised after the Wesleyan tradition and one of many such small groups in London. The mission soon began holding services in theatres and music halls, cleverly attracting audiences with posters mimicking those of popular shows. In 1867, the Christian Mission acquired the Eastern Star, a run-down beer shop and bowling alley, for 120 pounds, and turned it into its first headquarters known as the People's Mission Hall, which began to perform two functions: religious and social. It housed people for all-night prayer vigils, known as the Midnight Meeting movement, and also sold cheap food to the needy.
The name "The Salvation Army" developed from an incident in May 1878. William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, "We are a volunteer army." Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, "Volunteer, I'm no volunteer, I'm a regular!" Railton was instructed to cross out the word "volunteer" and substitute the word "salvation". The uniformed movement with its military language and ranks had evidently hit upon a formula which worked, grew rapidly and began to spread outside of London. Military matters were in vogue at the time as the Russo-Turkish war had broken out in 1877. The earliest reference to an organised opposition to The Salvation Army was in August 1880 in Whitechapel, when The "Unconverted Salvation Army" was founded with its flag and motto of "Be just and fear not".
The Salvationists had their rivals espousing a similar cause and somewhat surprisingly there were clashes. As reported in the North Wales Express, 8th April 1881:
- "FIGHT BETWEEN THE SALVATION AND HALLELUJAH ARMIES.—A telegram from Iniskillen states that disturbances having occurred there between the Salvation and Hallelujah Armies the magistrates on Saturday proclaimed the town. The streets were cleared by the police, who had to charge the mob. The Riot Act was about to be read. Yesterday Aide-de-Camp Gillas, of the Hallelujah Army, was arrested under the terms of the proclamation, and went to jail singing and praying. A telegram from Basingtoke says:— The mayor has issued a proclamation, calling upon the Salvation Army to abstain from parading the streets, and cautioning people from loitering in the public thoroughfares on Sundays. Several of the licensed victuallers have hoisted the Union Jack, and great rejoicing prevails among the mob at the mayor's decision."
The first newspaper reports of potential trouble in Exeter were also appearing at this time. The South Wales Echo reported on the 7th May 1881:
- "A LOVE FEAST.—At the Exeter Police-court complaint was made by the chief constable as to the disturbance created in the streets by the proceedings of the Salvation Army. The army is said to have taken the lease of one of the public halls for seven years, and the residents in the neighbourhood especially complain of the state of uproar into which the locality was thrown when a love feast was held. The magistrates informed the chief constable that if a requisition duly signed was presented they would consider what steps should be taken."
A grim - if well-intentioned - publication called "The Darkest England Gazette" was produced by the Salvationists, with the remit of "voicing the miseries and pleading the necessities" of those lured into music halls, which are described as "trapdoors to vice". The Salvationist ethos was not all restrictive - in addition to wanting to prohibit alcohol and prostitution, they gave equal status to women within the organisation. According to one source, these women could offer holy communion and exercise religious authority through preaching.
Skeleton Army
Many sources state that in 1881, "Skeleton Armies", opposing the Salvationists, were raised in Whitechapel, Exeter and Weston-super-Mare, and the name was quickly taken up elsewhere as other groups were formed in the south of England. Wikipedia states that there are no records of Skeleton Armies north of London, but this article will argue the case for a transient one in Chester. The dates are important, as they show that in Chester there was opposition to the Salvation Army from the time of their arrival and that their skirmish with the local "Skeleton Army" occurred very early in the cycle of riots associated with them.
Like many of the religious sects of the 19th century, the view of the early Salvationists was that the poverty and squalour afflicting the "lower orders" was largely their own fault, caused by their giving-in to drink, gambling and other vices. Some might consider these activities traditional pastimes and that opposition to them was simply a pointless way of stirring-up social conflict. Others held that the Skeleton Armies were a sinister and organised movement
The first appearance of the Skeleton Army named as such appears to have been in the Western Times at Exeter in October 1881, where the Salvationists had arrived earlier that year and Captain Abram Davey had "opened fire". Davey was soon reporting a successful campaign and claimed to have “saved 300 sinners”, men and women of the worst type in Exeter, which he describes as “drunks and Magdalens” who "now attend fully clothed and in their right minds". Opposition, possibly backed by local publicans, appeared quickly and in August 1881 the local paper reported a week of nightly disturbances. While it was generally believed that the Skeleton Army were "yobs", Exeter solicitor Edward Dent was reputedly the Lieutenant-General of the Skeleton Army. The Skeleton army had slogans which matched the Salvationists "Soup, Soap, Salvation" with "Beef, Beer, Bacca". Their flags displayed rats and coffins, proclaiming "Blood and Thunder" rather than the Salvationists "Blood and Fire". They appear to have had their own song-sheets and even gazettes (considered blasphemous or obscene, and now a rare collector's item). One mock version of a hymn, as reported in the The Sussex Coast Mercury, 12 July 1884, had the words:
- The Salvation Army we must drive, far, far away,
- For cannibals to eat alive, far, far away,
- We will pepper and salt them too,
- And make them fit for a rare stew,
- And old head shall sail with the crew,
- Far, far away.
Matters flared up again in October, when the name "Skeleton Army" was first used. The disturbances grew in number and ferocity. On the 11th March 1882, the Mayor of Exeter Thomas Andrew (a publican) issued a proclamation which prohibited both the Salvation Army and their opponents The Skeleton Army from marching in the streets. Some Salvationists ignored this and other prohibitions and were arrested. If convicted and fined, they would refuse to pay and make a great show of being sent to prison. Booth visited Exeter at the end of 1884 and reported that more than 600 Salvationists had served prison sentences in England that year. At one point his daughter Eva Booth was convicted and served time in Exeter Prison. On her release she was met by the Exeter Salvation Army band and led in her convict’s uniform to the "Temple", where she conducted services that lasted until midnight.
Attacks on Salvation Army members spread across the country including, Weston-super-Mare, Honiton and Oxford. Some of the worst attacks occurred in 1884 in the south-coast resorts of Eastbourne, Hastings and Worthing. It has been suggested that members of existing Bonfire Societies were prominent in pro-actively forming Skeleton Armies to rid their towns of The Salvation Army. Eventually, in August 1882, the Dragoons had to be called-out to help quell the violence.
The "riot" in Chester took place in March 1882, less then two weeks after the Mayoral proclamation in Exeter.
History in Chester
1881 was a notable year for religion in Chester as the tower of the original Cathedral, St Johns, collapsed on Good Friday. It was never rebuilt and the rubble was used to form part of the Groves.
The Salvation Army began in Chester in the winter of 1881-82, holding services initially at the Linenhall, and then at the Pavilion Skating Rink, opposite Chester Station (now Anfield's builders merchant). This has been described as "a building errected during the short-lived mania for roller-skating". The earliest date that can be put to their activities in Chester is the 26th November 1881. The Army opened a barracks in Commonhall Street in 1889, but in 1896 was temporarily based at the Union Hall in Foregate Street. It returned to Commonhall Street in 1899. In 1908 or 1909 the Army moved to the Temperance Hall in George Street (a former Primitive Methodist chapel), and from there successively to wooden huts on the south side of Castle Street in 1950, a prefabricated hut at Northgate roundabout in 1973, and a newly built utilitarian headquarters in St. Anne Street, Newtown, in 1976.
Shortly after its arrival in Chester the Salvation Army gained the disapproval of Saughall inhabitants when it marched through the village on the 26th January 1882 singing loudly. The residents complained that:
- “The Salvation Army are allowed nightly to parade streets shouting and singing.. ..to the serious inconvenience of the public. Let them conduct their services in the places they have taken for that purpose. They may there shout their war-whoops, do their marching, drill to their hearts content”.
A few days later a letter to the local press began:
- "Sir, A detchment of the Salvation Army, now in this city, are allowed nightly to parade the streets shouting and singing, to the serious inconvenience of the public. If a man has a restive horse he must hold him fast by the heads to prevent him bolting on account of the noise."
Despite this, the Army’s popularity grew and their congregation always filled the Pavilion Skating Rink for each of the four Sunday services, even the early one at 7am. There were complaints of people missing trains due to the throngs in the street near the station, and even of people being carried unwillingly by the momentumn of the crowds into the Pavilion when trying to pass. Advice as to what to do when a horde of Salvationists approached included to huddle in a doorway until they had passed.
The press of the time reports unease with the activities of the Salvation Army elsewhere. The Llangollen Advertiser of 15th April 1881 reported:
- "There is great cause to complain of the provocation caused by the "Salvation Army" parades. We cannot close our eyes to their flaunting displays, nor our ears to their terrific howlings. Whenever they march forth to fight some imaginable foe, the air is rent with shouts, and darkened by cabbage stalks, tin pots, defunct dogs, and other missiles less polite than emphatic. In fact, we cannot say our prayers in peace for the row caused by these modern" Gordonites." It would be a boon to thousands were the magistrates to put a stop to this nuisance.."
The developing situation in Exeter was particularlyt widely reported. The Cardigan Observer of 3rd September 1881 states:
- "SALVATION ARMY RIOTS. Disturbances approaching riot took place on Sunday at Exeter, in consequence of the Salvation Army parading the streets. Three persons were arrested by the police and brought before the magistrates. The army marched into one of the suburbs and were there met by a band of dissentients, who struck up a tin-kettle accompaniment to the hymns which the Salvation Army attempted to sing in the streets. On returning to the city by way of Exe-bridge the army found their progress disputed by a number of roughs, and fighting was the result of the evening service. The hall in which the Salvation Army met was besieged by crowds, and fighting took place between the latter and some of the army, the result of which was that the police captured one of each side, and the magistrates fined both, placing the greatest penalty on the Salvationist because they thought he commenced the fight. Later on the leaders of the army had to be escorted home by a guard, and then one of their sympathisers was taken into custody by the police, but he was dismissed. A very bitter feeling is growing, and those who have sympathy with the Salvation Army regret that they do not show more discretion than to parade the streets"
In Chester, there were already widely-reported difficulties with locals at an early date: on 3rd December 1881 the Chepstow Argus reported:
- "A serious disturbance has also taken place at Chester. A number of roughs obtained admission to the Pavilion Skating Rink, which the Salvation Army has secured as barracks, and when a Salvationist had sung a hymn to the tune of a popular song they enthusiastically encored her. In the meantime, some young men had managed to get on the iron roof of the building, and made a fearful noise bv beating it with brickbats. A window was smashed. The collecting box of one of the Army was kicked into the air. A general scramble for the money ensued, but eventually the box was recovered, and order was restored by the police."
There was further trouble at the end of December 1881, according again to the a report syndicated in the Chepstow Argus:
- "A DISGRACEFUL row was commenced at Chester by a young Irishman, named Patrick Cafferty, at the Salvation Army service there. Tlrere were about 2000 persons present, and whenever a speaker got up to address them, Cafferty commenced to shout, whistle, and hoot. He was joined by a knot of fellows about him - the proceedings ultimately became so tumultuous that the Salvationists had to close the proceedings. Cafferty was given into custody, and afterwards brought before Sir Thos. G. Frost (the Mayor). After hearing the evidence Sir Thomas said, as that was the first offence of the sort in Chester, the prisoner would be let off with a fine of 20s. and costs, or fourteen days' imprisonment; but if those disturbances were renewed, prisoners would be much more severely dealt with. The Salvationists were doing useful work in Chester, in reclaiming drunken and disorderly persons, and they should be protected in every possible way from the attacks of lawless men."
It is worth noting that this was only a month after the Salvationists arrived in Chester. Meanwhile, on the south coast the salvationists were now riven by internal strife:
- "MUTINY IN THE SALVATION ARMY: RIVAL CAPTAINS AT WAR. The barrack of the Salvation Army located at Fishponds, near Bristol, has during the week been a scene of riots which have each night grown in intensity and necessitated the attention ot the. police. It appears that some time since, "Captain" Weedon, who commanded the Fishponds forces, left for Exeter, and was succeeded by "Captain" Newcombe, who it said to have made many friends. Weedon, some few days since, returned to review the troops, and for some reason Newcombe has been officially supplanted by "Happy Tom." Newcombe has been tendered a "call" to Exeter, but the salubrious air of Fishponds appears to suit him, and he declines to leave. The result is the scene above referred to. The Newcombe party will have none of "Happy Tom," and vice versa. The disturbance commenced on Monday night, when the police were sent for, and two officers proceeded to the hall. Upon their arrival Newcombe's party called upon them to clear the hall, and this they effected amidst much hooting and roaring. A part of the crowd afterwards proceeded to Newcombe's residence, in New-buildings, and Newcombe and his family were turned into the street, and compelled to seek shelter in the house of a friend. On Tuesday the police were once more in requisition, there being a great disturbance in the hall, A collection was made, which realised only a penny; but upon a benefit collection being announced for Newcombe the sum of 11s 6d. was subscribed. On Wednesday evening the disturbance was renewed with even greater energy, and the police were once more sent for. The peaceable inhabitants complain warmly of the annoyance caused by these rival factions, and of the police being forced to concentrate their attention in keeping order, to the neglect of other portions of the extensive district."
Local attitudes towards the Salvationists might also be judged from the following article in the Wrexham Advertiser from 7th january 1882, which also mentions opposition to them in the form of the "Jolly Army", although the implication is that these are fond of a drink rather than rioting:
- "THE SALVATION ARMY. This earnest but eccentric body of Christians have been recently having what Americans Know as "a good time." If a multiplicity of meetings means a corresponding increase of usefulness, then we may ere long expect to find the Salvation Army in Wrexham assume gigantic proportions. The first attack upon this town was made on October 22nd, a little more than two months ago, and the Wrexham detachment of the army now numbers about 300. Although there is, to our minds, a deal of effervescent religionism amongst them, together with a light treatment of sacred things which is scarcely to be commended, they have done some good, but whether it is permanent or not remains to be seen. Nor have their members been enrolled alone from the ranks of the hoi polloi, as many people imagine, for there are, we are informed, a number of persons of intelligence and fairly good social position who have thrown in their lot with them. Their services are popular, and the audiences are very large. Opposition, of course, meets them, and an opposition body has been organised, calling itself "The Jolly Army," but perhaps The Barmy Army" would be more appropriate. Early in the week a number of services have been held, Commissioner Railton, from London, having been sent down to conduct them. On Saturday night the Commissioner conducted a watchnight service in the Temperance Hall where addresses were delivered by "Captain" Hockey, "Lieutenant" Spenceby, the two lady officers in charge of the local corps, and others. The service which lasted from eleven o'clock until nearly one o'clock the next morning, was well attended, the hall being crammed. Seven o'clock on Sunday morning saw a large contingent of the army in the Public Hall. At ten o'clock there was an open air service in the Beast Market at which there was a large attendance. At eleven o'clock a meeting, iargeiy attended, was held in the Public Hall and earnest addresses were delivered by the officers. After a march round the town a "Hallelujah Free and Easy" was held in the Public Hall at three o'clock which was crowded. The usual service was held at half-past six o'clock when the hall was again densely packed by an attentive congregation. On Monday morning at 10:30 a "Baptism of Fire" wass held in the Chester Street Congregational Chapel, when a large audience was present. In the afternoon a meeting called "War Memories" was held in the same place of worship, when a large, orderly, and respectable congregation assembled to hear addresses from the Commissioner and the officers, which were very interesting. Later on a Hallelujah Tea Meeting was held in the Temperance Hall, when a vast number sat down to an excellent tea, provided by Mr David Dodd in his usual good style. In the evening a crowded meeting termed Shouts of Praise was held in the Zion Chapel. The large building was most uncomfortably filled, and the heat was very oppressive. The Army hymns were heartily sung to popular tunes, an impromptu orchestra being composed as follows:— Tambourine, The Captain; "The Hallelujah Fiddle," The Lieutenant; several tin whistles and concertinas being distributed amongst the privates. The instrumentation was hardly all that could be desired and little of the efforts of the orchestra could be heard when the Army sang. The meeting was announced to commence at 7.30, but in consequence of the chapel being filled at seven o'clock the meeting was then commenced. Adresses were delivered by the Rev. H. Barrow i Williams, Rev. H. J. Haffer, and a missionary from India, whose name we could not learn. The tenor of the addresses was that although the speakers could not see eye to eye with the Salvationists, their object was the same, and consequently sympathy and concord should exist amongst them. The meeting broke up about half-past nine, a detachment escorting "Happy Charlie" a visitor from Liverpool, and the Commissioner to the Railway Station. Collections were made at all the services in aid of the London Training Home."
February 1882 saw further trouble in Chester:
- "At the Chester city police court, on Monday morning, Jeremiah Morris, Chester, and John Fletcher, Altringham, two rough-looking men, were charged with creating a disturbance and assaulting an officer of the Salvation Army. The prisoners commenced larking and shouting during service on Sunday, and when remonstrated with, they struck the officer violently to the face. The Mayor (Sir Thomas Gibbons Frost) gave the prisoners 21 days imprisonment without the option of a fine."
Clearly, the Salvationists had begun to attract trouble very soon after their arrival in Chester. By now the papers were reporting disorder associated with the Salvationists, particularly from Exeter, on an almost daily basis. The Weekly Mail of 18th March 1882 contained the following:
- "The captain of the Salvation Army was arrested Exeter on Sunday by the police for heading a procession and singing in the streets. The mayor on Saturday issued n. proclamation stating that tho police had orders to disperse processions, in consequence of a breach of the peace being apprehended. A crowd attacked the Salvation Army and sticks were freely used."
Black Sunday
By early 1882 the Salvationists in Chester seem to have established a practice of marching from Boughton to their Pavilion on Sunday mornings. Their starting point was the drinking fountain errected by Ms Humble of Christleton in 1872. The drinking fountain is still there, but has been moved a short distance from its original location at the fork of the Tarvin and Christleton roads to the corner of St Giles Cemetery.
On Sunday 26 March 1882 the Salvationists gathered as usual at the drinking fountain at Boughton but instead of skirting the "worst" streets as they normally did, it was decided to parade right through the area, led by their Captain, Miss Miriam Falconbridge. Two policemen, a Sergeant Price and an Inspector Farrell, accompanied them.
The Salvationists had decided to pass down Steven Street, a particularly impoverished part of Chester. From "Virtual Stroll" we learn that in 1865, Steven Street boasted 42 of the 110 known common lodging houses in Chester. Over the door of each hung a small blackboard listing the name of the keeper and the number of lodgers allowed- a number rarely adhered to - and a set of "rules of the house". The Cheshire Observer reported that:
- "in a small room we found three truckle beds... each was taken by two occupants, for the three pence nightly charge by no means entitles a lodger to his own bed, much less his own room and he must overcome any qualms about sleeping next to a beggar, a convict or an unwashed tramp. The bedrooms are chiefly remarkable for their appearance of discomfort and destitution .."
There appear to have been two copywriters for the circulated press reports about what happened next. In one vesion of the copy the press reported:
- "On Sunday, the members of the Salvation Army at Chester were for the first time since they have taken up their quarters in that city attacked in a disgraceful manner. At the end of last week it was arranged that a procession of Salvationists should form on Sunday morning at the Broughton Fountain, and proceed through Boughton to the Skating Rink, where the services are held, and it is now stated that the chiefs of the police advised the leaders on Saturday night to take the procession through Bishop's Fields instead of through Broughton. However this may be, the army met at the place named, and, headed by the captain, Miss Falconbridge, paraded in processional order through Broughton, singing as they went. On reaching the entrance to Steven Street, they were met by a large mob of Broughton roughs, who attacked the unoffending Salvationists in a disgraceful manner-bricks, stones, rotten eggs, oranges, brushes, and all kinds of missiles being employed. The Salvationists neither provoked the attack nor, as far as could be judged, retaliated. During the disturbance, Police- sergeant Price was wounded by a stone. The attack was continued up to Seller Street, where Mr. Dutton, a prominent Salvationist, was also hurt; whilst on Seller-street Bridge, Miss Falconbridge received a severe cut in the forehead from a stone. She was taken to an adjoining house, where she remains under medical treatment. Not satisfied with this, the mob, to the number of from 400 to 500, made up principally of Stevens Street roughs, paraded Broughton through the afternoon, shouting and singing parodies on Salvationist hymns, carrying sticks and floor brushes with shawls to do the duty of flags. Afterwards they proceeded to the rink with the evident intention of renewing their attack and taking possession, but in this they were foiled by the precautions of Chief Constable Fenwick, and they had to satisfy themselves with throwing stones on the roof. Much sympathy is felt for Miss Falconbridge, and the action of the rowdies is universally condemned. The mob did not reach the rink within 100 yards in the afternoon, but were persuaded by the chief constable to return. Shortly afterwards, however, they indulged in a free fight amongst themselves opposite St. Paul's Church. Several persons were more or less injured. The rink was crowded to suffocation at the evening meeting."
The press report is wrong in a few respects. Evidently the police had not warned the Salvationists not to march, although they were aware that trouble might be expected and had provided two officers. At least one report states that Miss Falconbridge had been involved in marches which had become violent on a previous occassion, in Shrewsbury. Booth himself had recently visited Chester and presented the local Army with a new flag carried at the head of their procession for the first time by Standard-bearer Henry Speed. Chief Constable Fenwick did manage to calm things down and prevent a full-scale assault on the Savlationists base at the pavilion.
Another version of the copy reads:
- "ANTI-SALVATION RIOT AT CHESTER. AN IRISH MOB IN ARMS. CHESTER, Sunday Evening. — To-day a serious collision occurred between a body of the Chester Salvation Army and the Irish population of the district known as Boughton, into which the Salvation Army had not previously penetrated. The officers of the army gave intimation to the police before marching that they were going into Boughton, the Irish quarter, in order to beat up their converts, and several constables were instructed to preserve order. The members of the army left the Pavilion Rink, their head quarters, at ten o'clock in the morning. In the meantime, the Catholic population having heard of their coming, turned out en masse armed with cudgels stories, and carrying flags of various kinds. The police advised the Salvationists not to proceed; in view of the threatening aspect of affairs, but they did so nevertheless. The Irish received them with shouts and a volley of miscellaneous rubbish, threatening them with further violence if they proceeded. The army endeavoured to proceed, when a fierce fight ensued, and the Salvationists who were unarmed, were very roughly handled. Stones and brick ends were thrown, and sticks were freely used. The police did all that was possible to prevent the violence of the mob. Miss "Captain" Falconbridge, in command of the Salvation Army at Chester, was struok by a stone on the temple, and had to be carried into a neighbouring house, where she was attended by Dr. Roberts. Sergeant Price, of the Chester police, received a heavy blow on the mouth with a stone. Several other persons received severe injuries before the riot terminated. In the afternoon the Irish again congregated, and were marching about a thousand strong, to storm the rink, when Mr Fenwick, chief constable of Chester, stopped the ringleaders, and after a brief parley, happily succeeded in inducing them to return. The excitement is now quiet."
This version places much more emphasis on the "mob" being Irish and Catholic, and differs in the details as to where the Salvationists were marching: to rather than from Boughton. The second version also has a much larger mob making an assault on the Pavilion in the afternoon. Other sources indicate that tensions remained high and by late evening even innocent passers-by were being beaten and assaulted. It was one of the worst days of violence that Chester had ever seen since the reform of its notoriously corrupt electoral system.
The actual course of the Salvationists march appears to have been around Boughton via Cecil Street then along Boughton to Steven Street which they paraded down to get to the canal towpath, then followed the canalside until they reached "Lunt's Bridge" between Seller and Egerton Streets. It was while crossing that bridge that there was a further skirmish and Miss "Captain" Falconbridge was hit with a stone.
Aftermath
It appears that no arrests were made on the day, but proceedings opened in the Police Court on 30th March, by which time a number of suspects had either been rounded-up or had been summoned to the court. The Chester Chronicle, a local newspaper, reported:
- “Altogether some twenty three individuals were charged with participating in the riots, and their physiognomy was on the whole most stupid and in many cases of brutal character .. The majority were unmistakably roughs of decidedly criminal appearance; some of the women were sallow-faced and of a low type of physique, but most of the men were big, hulking, powerful fellows and included some of the most troublesome characters in the town”.
The following day, proceeding re-opened with a "shocking revelation":
- "THE ATTACK ON THE SALVATION ARMY AT CHESTER. Great excitement prevailed at Chester on Friday, when the whole of the prisoners charged with riotous conduct on Sunday last, and with attacking the Salvation Army in Boughton, the Irish quarter of Chester, were placed in the dock. There was a very full bench of magistrates. Sir Thomas Frost. the mayor, in taking the chair, said:— I have this morning received a letter addressed to me, and signed "Revenge and Death." It is as follows:— Chester, March 30,1882. Sir Thomas Frost, — We, the Secret Brotherhood of Chester, hear that you will occupy the chair tomorrow on the hearing of the attack on the Salvation Army, and we, the Secret Brotherhood undersigned, that is revenge and death, solemnly vow and swear that if you pronounce one or anv of the prisoners guilty you and all your brother magistrates will answer with your lives." It is signed in blood, with coffin and the usual cross bones, Revenge and death. (Sensation in court.) Mr. Brassey, on behalf of the prisoners, repudiated the letter. Sir Thomas Frost: I only wish the public to know the class of persons we have to deal with. — The Mayor also said he had received letters from Canon Cholmondeley, on behalf of the Roman Catholics, and from General Booth on behalf of the Salvation Army. Canon Cholmondeley said if the Army were allowed to go into Boughton on Sunday next no one could say upon what horrors and miseries the shades of Sunday night might fall. He suggested that the road into Boughton should be guarded by a strong cordon of police, and thus render a collision between the Irish Catholics and the Salvation Army impossible. General Booth wrote to plead for the rioters, and to say he had instructed his officers not to go into Boughton on Sunday, or anywhere where they were likely to come into conflict with the Irish. The cases were then proceeded with, and occupied the court until four o'clock. In the result two of the prisoners were discharged, eight were committed for trial, and nine were bound over to keep the peace."
Whether the "Revenge and Death" letter had anything to do with the Skeleton Army is not known. Victorian pranksters were known to send letters to the courts or police and sometime Journalists would send them in to "improve" a story. The Quarter Sessions which followed in April were reported as follows:
- "THE SALVATION ARMY RIOTS AT CHESTER. A LENIENT SENTENCE. At the Chester quarter sessions, on Tuesday, Mr Horatio Lloyd, recorder, and a jury, were engaged till late on Tuesday night trying eight men named Jordan, Hughes, Minton, Tansey, Moran, McGough, Davies, and Brannigan for unlawfully and riotously assembling to disturb the public peace. The rioting arose out of an attack on the Salvation Army, which was for the first time penetrating the Irish suburb of Boughton, to "attack the devil in his stronghold," as the announcement went. Henry Speed, hon. sec. of the local branch of the Salvation Army, said in their march they were beset by roughs. Women had their aprons full of stones, and boys their caps full. They were violently stoned as they proceeded. He saw Minton throw a stone which struck the "captain," Miss Falconbridge, on the forehead. She staggered, and had to be carried into a house close by. Henry Thompson, who stepped into the witness box with both eves bandaged, said he was blind in one eye, and a stone from Jordan struck him such a severe blow in the other that he was now almost totally blind. Dr. Hamilton was called, and said Thompson's eyeball was injured. The inflammation might have been caused by a heavy blow, Mary Burns said she saw Jordan throw a stone, which stiuck a young man on the head. In cross-examination witness admitted she had been tried at Liverpool Assizes for manslaughter, but denied she kept a brothel. After other questions had been put to damage her credibility, she retorted by saying that counsel ought not to speak so much of the bad side of her character. Credit ought to be given to the Salvation Army for rescuing such a character as she was, a remark which was greeted with loud cries of "Hear, hear" from the spectators. Witnesses were called to identify the other prisoners. The case occupied the court till eight o'clock, when the jury, after an hour's absence, returned with a verdict of guilty against Jordan, Minton, Morgan, McGough, and Hughes. Davies, Brannigan, and Tansey were found not guilty. — The Recorder ordered the prisoners to stand up to receive sentence. He said they were liable to two years' imprisonment with hard labour. The Salvationists, in going through Boughton, were acting strictly within their legal rights, and if anyone interfered with them they would be exposing themselves to the penalty of the law. He was going to keep the power he possessed in reserve. He was going to order them to enter into their own recognisances of £20 to come up for judgment when called upon. In the event of their doing anything of the kind again they would be called up and sentenced without trial. Prisoners were then discharged. The lenient sentence took the crowded court completely by surprise. Minton, who struck down Miss "Captain" Falconbridge with a stone, and endangered her life for a week, was identified beyond doubt, while Jordan was seen to throw a stone, which will probably destroy the sight of the youth named Thompson."
It appears that the Court took the view that a concilliatory approach was the correct one. While they did not state that the Salvationists were banned from marching, as occurred elsewhere. The Court did have an assurance from Booth that the Salvationists would not approach Boughton or any other place inhabited by Roman Catholics. The Catholic response was that a Catholic who rioted was a bad Catholic. but Canon Cholmondeley of St Werburgh's made it clear that the best course was to "take no notice of Revivalists" and that the Salvation Army were "no peaceful guild".
There was much discussion as to whether Boughton publicans had, fearful for their livelihoods, stoked-up the mob by supplying drink. Letters were written to the local press claiming that there was evidence for this, but no such evidence was ever published. However, while problems with the Skeleton Army continued elsewhere there was no futher violence in Chester. As a precaution a police-station was established in Boughton at "The Engine House". The precise whereabouts of this is not known, but it may have been close to the "Engine House Tavern".
Skeleton Army or Not?
Should the Chester events be listed amongst those involving a nationally active Skeleton Army?
The protests against the Salvationists in Chester took place very shortly after the skirmishes in Exeter (early March 1882) and the proclamation of a ban on marches. The opposition to the Chester march seems to have been well organised, with a large turn-out who apparently had time to fortify themselves with drink at an early hour of the morning. The "rioters" provided themselves with what were then relatively new symbols of the Skeleton Army - dishcloths and shawls on broom-handles to parody the flags of the Salvationists. The Chester "riot" was not an isolated incident, but needs to be seen in the context of similar violence at the same time elsewhere, although a similar style of protest does not imply a common organisation.
The newspapers of the time reported disorder associated with the Skeleton Army widely. This may have contributed to its spread, both by encouraging people to protest against the Salvationists, but also by leading the Salvationists to undertake provocative parades. For the Chester Salvationists this may have been a special procession: the first outing of Chester's new banner since Booth's visit earlier in March and the first occasion on which the Salvationists had paraded down Steven Street, an exceptionally poor area.
It has been suggested that on the south coast there may have been some organisation in the form of "bonfire societies", who were known to be boisterous, but there is little evidence for this. The Skeleton Army Gazettes may have simply been printer's attempts to make money by running off a variant on the "penny dreadful". The print quality of these leaflets is fair, but the texts are often poor attempts at humour and present no coherent political message. No such publications are known from Chester.
At the time the theory was put forward that Boughton publicans encouraged the protestors. This could well have been been true, with the Chester events being a "copy-cat" repeat of the events in Exeter and other places in the south. One could equally state that it was the Salvationists who provoked the violence.
Fortunately, the authorities in Chester had a different response to those in the south. The violence associated with the Skeleton Army in Chester appears to have ceased after the single day of trouble and the following trials. Elsewhere, especially on the south coast where the magistrates took action against the Salvationists by arresting and imprisoning many, the trouble lingered on for some years.
Sources and Links
Related Pages
Online
- CW&C History and Heritage;
- Victorian Chester: see chapter on "Black Sunday";
- Salvation Army: at Victorian Web;
- The Salvation Army in Exeter;
- Attack at Sheffield: January 1882;
