Battle of Brunanburh

The Battle of Brunanburh was fought in 937 between Æþelstān, "King of England", and an alliance of Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin; Constantine II, King of Scotland, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde. The main point of contention is the location of the battlefield, for which over forty places have been proposed. One contender for the site of the battle is Bromborough on the Wirral, a little way north of Chester. Whether the battle was fought there or not, there is little or nothing on the supposed battle site to see today, save for visitors with a particular interest, although "Viking Wirral" has quite a few sites worth a look. There is compelling evidence that the Wirral was settled by the Vikings and an excellent guide can be found together with heaps more stuff on the Viking Wirral pages. This article assumes the battle was fought on the Wirral, although, as noted, well-reasoned arguments have been put forward for several other locations.



This battle has posssibly been confused with the legendary Arthurian battle of "Mons Badonicus" which was already reported by Nennius and Gildas in De Excidio Britanniae ("The Ruin of Britannia") many years previously. However, the fact that Alfred fought the Danes at Chester, and that his son Edgar fought (and died) at Farndon, may have meant that if third-generation Æþelstān fought another battle near Chester, later legends would mix all these elements together. Some early theories suggested that the "purpose" of the battle was to drive an English wedge between the "Welsh" and the "Scots" and therefore prevent any alliance against the Anglo-Saxons as well as gaining a port on the Irish Sea. This theory has now largely been discounted, for reasons that Wales was an ally of Æþelstān, the Danes had already split the celts and for the further reason that the Mercians already had access to the Irish Sea.

The connection with Chester is not only one of proximity, is possible that a boundary stone ("Vínheíþr-stan" in Icelandic) existed at Upton giving rise to the name of "Wealstone Lane". The reference to "Vínheíþr" is interesting as "Vin Heath" is mentioned in Egils Saga (see Chapter 52) as being the location of the Battle of Brunanburh. Æþelstān was encamped prior to the battle at a town a little way to the south and, given the time that it took for messengers to ride between the opponents, this may well have been Chester. "Vin" is often interpreted as a personal name, but the so-called "Wirral Micro-climate" may be such that it was possible to grow grape-vines there in Viking times, so the "Vin" may be a reference to a place where grapes grew. There is a further reference to vines on the 1735 map of Upton. Port-, Tapa- and Wing-Fields are grouped together along Liverpool Road behind the Egerton Arms (now "The Mill") – Upton Drive area. Tapa is a personal name (NB Pica in Picton), words beginning with ‘wing’ in the Old English dictionary frequently relate to vines.

The "English"
In the eighth century, Mercia had been the most powerful kingdom in southern England, but in the early ninth, Wessex became dominant under Æthelstan's great-great-grandfather, Egbert (who eventually captured Chester as portrayed in sculpture at the Town Hall). In the middle of the century, England came under increasing attack from Viking raids, culminating in invasion by the Great Heathen Army in 865. By 878, the Vikings had overrun East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia, and nearly conquered Wessex. The West Saxons fought back under Alfred the Great, and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington. Alfred and the Viking leader Guthrum agreed on a division that gave Alfred western Mercia, while eastern Mercia was incorporated into Viking East Anglia. In the 890s, renewed Viking attacks were successfully fought off by Alfred, assisted by his son (and Æthelstan's father) Edward and Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians. This conflict involved a skirmish at Chester, possibly with the Vikings camping out in the Amphitheatre. Æthelred ruled English Mercia under Alfred and was married to his daughter Æthelflæd, who was involved in the re-fortification of Chester and the extension of the City Walls. Alfred died in 899 and was succeeded by Edward.

Vikings in the Wirral
The presence of a Viking settlement in the Wirral is evident from place names. Judging from the rather limited historical evidence for Scandinavian settlement in the Wirral, the Norse, under the leadsership of Ingimund, were allowed to settle in Mercian territory by permission of Æthelflæd, the Lady of the Mercians, who ruled Mercia from 911 until her death in 918. Some historians have suggested that allowing the Vikings to settle was a strange decision. What may be relevant is that Æthelflæd's brother, Edward the Elder had other issues with the Vikings at the time. Becoming king was not straightforward for Edward. A cousin, Æthelwold, disputed the succession and seized the royal estates of Wimborne, symbolically important as the place where his father was buried, and Christchurch, both in Dorset. Æthelwold fled to Viking-controlled Northumbria, where he was accepted as king. In 901 or 902 Æthelwold sailed with a fleet to Essex, where he was also accepted as king. The following year Æthelwold persuaded the East Anglian Danes to attack Edward's territory in Wessex and Mercia. At about the same time the Hiberno-Norse exile Ingamund sought to settle at Chester. There is no reason to suppose that the two events were related, but the arrangements reached with Ingamund could have been affected by the threat from Danes on two fronts, and the close timing of these two events is often overlooked by historians. Edward retaliated with a raid on East Anglia, forcing the enemy to return home in order to protect their own lands. When Edward withdrew the men of Kent lingered and met the East Anglian Danes at the Battle of the Holme (13 December 902). The Danes were victorious but suffered heavy losses, including the death of Æthelwold.

The Norse possibly landed somewhere between "Vestri-Kirkubyr" (West Kirby) and "Melr" (Meols). The exiles, led by Ingimund, were granted land in Wirral by Æthelflæd and soon established a community with a clearly defined border, its own leader, its own language (Norse), a trading port, and at its centre a place of assembly or government (þing vollr) - the "Thing" at Thingwall. They also brought their religion with them to "Thor's Stone" (Mjollnir) at "Thorsteinn's farmstead", now Thurstaston Hill. It is also possible that the Norwegian "Labskause" may have come to this part of the country at that time and survived as "scouse". See: Hilbre Island for more.

Archaeology confirms a Hiberno-Norse presence in Chester: a brooch with Borre-Jellinge ornament found at Princess Street is identical with a brooch found in Dublin, and must have derived from the same mould. So trade had been established with Chester but the Vikings cast covetous eyes on the wealth of the city. In 905 (some sources say 912), the Norsemen revolted and attempted to take the city of Chester. The opening of the story involve a certain amount of treachery:


 * At first, the Saxon inhabitants of Chester placed a force outside the city gates and then staged a mock retreat. The Norse followed and the gates were closed behind them, trapping them in the city where a great number were slain.


 * Following this, the Saxons came to an arrangement with the Irish, who were "no friends of the Saxons but hated the Norsemen more" to meet with the Norse and propose to betray Chester. Unfortunately this was a double-cross and the Norse that came (unarmed) to the meeting were also slain.

Their subsequent Norse attempt at taking the city took on all the elements of a farce:


 * The first Norse attack upon the walls was driven off by dropping rocks upon them. The Norse answer to this was to protect their heads with wooden hurdles supported by wooden beams;


 * The Saxon answer to the hurdles was to pour boiling beer on the Vikings (which of course ran through the hurdles). The Norse response to this was to cover the hurdles with animal skins;


 * Fire would have been the next Saxon weapon, and the Vikings would have countered this by protecting their assault on the wall with soaking-wet sails from their ships;


 * Unfortunately for the Vikings the Saxons has a secret weapon - they threw at the Vikings "all the beehives of the town". For the Vikings, trapped inside their heavy, soaking wet, hide and sail-covered siege shelters - now also filled with very agitated bees - that was enough, and the attempt on the city was abandoned.

"Ingamunds saga" (and the "Three Fragments" of the "Annals of Ireland") repeat the story as follows:


 * "..But the other forces, the Norsemen, were under hurdles piercing the walls. What the Mercians and the Irish who were among them did was to throw large rocks so that they destroyed the hurdles over them. What they did in the face of this was to place large posts under the hurdles. What the Mercians did was to put all the ale and water of the town in the cauldrons of the town, to boil them and pour them over those who were under the hurdles so that the skins were stripped from them. The answer that the Norsemen gave to this was to spread hides on the hurdles. What the Mercians did was to let loose on the attacking force all the beehives in the town, so that they could not move their legs of hands from the great number of bees stinging them. Afterwards they left the city and abandoned it. It was not long before they returned."

The later fortunes of Ingamund's people is not entirely certain: there was a sizeable Scandinavian "ghetto" in the southern quarter of Chester later on, centred on the church of St Olave’s (the Norwegian king, Olaf Haraldsson, martyred in 1030), and it would appear that many of them settled down in the city as merchants, possibly giving rise to the Gloverstone enclave.

When Edward died in 924, he controlled all of England south of the Humber and had concluded treaties with his neighbours to the north, including Scotland, Strathclyde and Scandinavian York. The simplest way of explaining what happened next is that Edward's successor Æþelstān broke his father's treaties as soon as the opportunity to do so presented itself.



Æþelstān:
Æþelstān (c.894 – 27 October 939) was the son of King Edward the Elder (see: Farndon) and his first wife, Ecgwynn. He became king in 924. Modern historians regard him as the first King of England. He is considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings - he was certainly one of the most aggressive. He never married and had no children, and while some have suggested this was because of his somewhat extreme religious position others have suggested that he was gay. Æþelstān's father and his aunt Æthelflæd were to regain much of the territory which the Vikings had conquered to the east of Mercia. In the process they would build a string of fortified locations across the gap from North Wales to the Pennines, including restoring the city of Chester. This would protect their flank while they rolled up the Vikings on the east coast and it is likely the young prince Æþelstān gained his military training in the Wessex/Mercian campaigns to reconquer the Danelaw. Aunt Æthelflæd, with whom Æþelstān spent much of his youth may have had strong views on religion as she established and promoted several cults (perhaps for political reasons), including that of Werburgh at Chester, and also, according to some traditions, had strong views on sex. According to William of Malmesbury, the birth of Ælfwynn only child of Æthelflæd and Æthelred was a difficult one, and William wrote that this led Æthelflæd to abstain from further sexual relations. To what extent Æþelstān's family upbringing shaped his character towards its particular form can only be speculated upon. Much the same can be said for his possible interaction with the Archbishop Plegmund a Mercian who had links to Chester.

At first Æþelstān appears to have continued with his father's policy of making treaties, although that may only have been because he faced potential threats at home following his disputed ascent to the throne, which possibly involved the murder of his rival Ælfweard. One of the tools he used to some advantage was the marriage of his sisters for political ends (at times in return for holy relics to add to his vast collection of the same). He married one sister, possibly Edith to the Danish king of Scandinavian York, Sitric Cáech with the condition that Sitric convert to christianity. According to one version of the tale, the marriage was never consummated. When Sihtric broke his side of the agreement by renouncing the Christian religion and died soon thereafter (927). Tradition has it that she returned south and founded a nunnery at Polesworth, not far from the Mercian royal seat at Tamworth, spending the rest of her life as a devout nun and virgin. Sitric's death brought about an internal conflict in Northumbria.



Later in 927 Æþelstān conquered Scandinavian York, making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England. It appears that upon the death of Sihtric and the outbreak of local conflict Æþelstān simply seized the chance and attacked. Guthfrith, a cousin of Sihtric, led a fleet from Dublin to try to take the throne, but Æþelstān easily prevailed. He captured York and received the submission of the Danish people. According to a southern chronicler, he "succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians", and it is uncertain whether he had to fight Guthfrith. Southern kings had never ruled the north, and his usurpation was met with outrage by the Northumbrians, who had always resisted southern control. However, at Eamont, near Penrith, on 12 July 927, King Constantine II of Alba, King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Ealdred of Bamburgh, and King Owain of Strathclyde (or Morgan ap Owain of Gwent) accepted Æthelstan's overlordship. His triumph led to seven years of peace in the north and he adopted the title "rex anglorum" (king of the English), in recognition of his rule over the whole of England. The term "Englalonde" (England) only came into use in the late 10th or early 11th century.

In 934 Æþelstān invaded Scotland and forced Constantine II to submit to him. Æþelstān's reasons are unclear, and historians give alternative explanations. The death (probably murder) of his half-brother Edwin in 933 might have finally removed factions in Wessex opposed to his rule. Guthfrith, the Norse king of Dublin who had briefly ruled Northumbria, died in 934; any resulting insecurity among the Danes would have given Æthelstan an opportunity to stamp his authority on the north. An entry in the Annals of Clonmacnoise, recording the death in 934 of a ruler who was possibly Ealdred of Bamburgh, suggests another possible explanation. This points to a dispute between Æthelstan and Constantine over control of his territory. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle briefly recorded the expedition without explanation, but the twelfth-century chronicler John of Worcester stated that Constantine had broken his treaty with Æthelstan.

Edmund:
Edmund (921 – 26 May 946) was the son of Edward the Elder and his third wife Eadgifu of Kent, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. Edmund was a young child when his father died in 924 at Farndon, and was succeeded by his eldest son and Edmund's half-brother Æþelstān, the son of his father's first wife. Æþelstān may have been implicated in the deaths of at least two rival claimants, both of whom were also half-brothers to both Æþelstān and Edmund by Edward the Edler's second wife Ælfflæd. There is nothing to suggest that Edmund ever made any kind of claim to the throne: although he was the son of King Edward he was only about 4 when Edward died (and only about 16 at the Battle of Brunanburh).

Egill Skallagrimsson
Egill Skallagrímsson (c.904 – c.995) was a Viking-Age poet, warrior and farmer. He is known mainly as the protagonist of Egil's Saga. Egil's Saga historically narrates a period from approximately 850 to 1000 CE and is believed to have been written between 1220 and 1240 CE. Its oldest manuscript (a fragment) dates back to 1240 AD, and comprises the sole source of information on the exploits of Egil, whose life is not historically recorded. Stylistic and other similarities between Egil's Saga and Heimskringla have led many scholars to believe that they were the work of the same author, Snorri Sturluson (1179 – 23 September 1241). Egill was born in Iceland, and, at the age of seven, was cheated in a game with local boys. Enraged, he went home and procured an axe, and returning to the boys, split the skull of the boy who cheated him. This set the pattern for his future.

Aftermath
Æþelstān's victory prevented the dissolution of England, but it failed to unite the island: Scotland and Strathclyde remained independent. Scholars have succested that its consequences beyond Æþelstān's reign have been overstated and that it was a pyrrhic victory as the campaign against the northern alliance ended in a stalemate.

Æþelstān continued to collect relics until he died at Gloucester on 27 October 939. His grandfather Alfred, his father Edward, and his half-brother Ælfweard had been buried at Winchester, where the New Minster was probably established as a royal shrine, together with other royalty including Edward's mother Ealhswith and Edward's second wife Ælfflæd, but Æþelstān chose not to honour the city associated with opposition to his rule, or the minster wher his step-mother was buried. After Æþelstān's death, the men of York immediately chose the Viking king of Dublin, Olaf Guthfrithsson, as their king, and Anglo-Saxon control of the north, seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh, collapsed. The reigns of Æþelstān's relatively young half-brothers Edmund and Eadred (923–955) were largely devoted to regaining control. Given the relative youth of these monarchs and their immediate sucessors, politics in the period after the death of Æþelstān probably involved a number of military and political "advisors" whose details have been lost to history.

The Danish leader, Olaf Guthrithson, took the city of York, supported by the infamous renegade Wulfstan, Archishop of York. Edmund besieged Olaf and Wulfstan at Leicester in 943. The King, supported by Odo, the Danish Archbishop of Canterbury, forced Olaf to accept his overlordship and agreement was eventually reached between the two opposing parties that Edmund was to rule the south and Olaf was to retain possession of all the area north of Watling Street. On the death of either, the survivor would inherit the whole country. Fortunately for Edmund, Olaf died the following year and the English King invaded Northumbria in 944. He marched a combined army of English and Welsh into Strathclyde, whose ruler, the renegade Donald or Dunmail had supported Olaf. Edmund conquered the province, which in 946 he ceded to Malcolm I, King of Scots on agreement that the latter should become his vassal. Edmund's promising reign was cut violently short after only six years. On 26 May 946, St Augustine's Day, Edmund was murdered by Leofa, a convicted outlaw, at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire. According to the post-Conquest chronicler, John of Worcester, Leofa attacked Edmund's seneschal, and Edmund was stabbed when he intervened to protect his servant, other version have it as a political assassination, and some report that Edmund was drunk at the time and became angered when he saw Leofa. Edmund was twenty-five years old when he was buried at Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset.



The 23 year old Eadred came to the throne following the death of Edmund I. The chief achievement of his reign was to bring the Kingdom of Northumbria under total English control, which occurred with the defeat and expulsion of Eric Bloodaxe in 954. Eadred died at the age of 32 having never married, thus bringing to the end the rule of the last of the sons of Edward the Elder. He was succeeded by his 15-year-old nephew, Eadwig. He died in 959, having ruled less than four years. He was buried in the capital Winchester. Eadwig was not a popular king, and his reign was marked by conflict with nobles and the Church, primarily St Dunstan and Archbishop Oda. In 957, the thanes of Mercia and Northumbria had changed their allegiance to the c.14 year-old Edgar. A conclave of nobles declared Edgar as king of the territory north of the Thames. Edgar became King of England upon Eadwig's death in October 959, aged 16. Edgar "the Pacific", (c. Aug 7, 943 – July 8, 975) was the great-grandson of Alfred and was famously crowned both at Bath and at Chester (in 973) as the first king of all England. The religious rites used in his coronation (use of anointing etc.) were devised by St. Dunstan and have been in use ever since. King Edgar is said to have prayed in the minster (monasterium) of St Johns after being rowed along the River Dee, possibly from Edgar's Field or possibly from a royal palace at Farndon. Edgar was 29 when he was crowned at Chester, having been king for 13 years. It might have seemed that some stability had returned, but the death of Edgar in 975 was to kick off another round of chaos.

From the 990s the family of Leofwine of Mercia settled in Chester and helped to ensure the city's survival as a major provincial centre. The family of Leofwine (known as the "House of Leofric") were to acquire immense wealth and power, and effectively create the "Earldom" of Chester that survived as an institution separate from the monarchy into the time of Edward I, and the death of the last non-royal earl in 1237.

Related Pages

 * Dark Ages;
 * Amphitheatre: - Chester from the end of Roman Chester until the time of Edward the Elder;
 * Farndon: - Edward the Elder and the succession of Æþelstān;
 * Upton;
 * Edgar's Field: - Edgar the Pacific brings back a brief perid of stability;
 * Plegmund: The life and times of an Archbishop from Chester;

Links

 * Battle of Brunanburh: on Wikipedia;
 * Basileos Anglorum: a study of the life and reign of King Athelstan of England, 924-939;